Congestive heart failure (CHF) remains a leading cause of mortality worldwide. The complex mechanisms involved in the pathophysiology of heart failure (HF) explain some of the limited impact of current recognized therapeutic strategies. The surgical strategies for treating end-stage heart failure are broad and new types of surgical treatments such as circulatory support devices continue to emerge as alternatives to cardiac transplantation for the treatment of end-stage heart failure. In addition, several new and innovative cellular therapies are under investigation and could be used to halt or reverse ventricular remodeling to improve cardiac function. An aggressive approach
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