A founder of paleopathology, the study of disease in ancient human remains, Sir Marc Armand Ruffer, MD (1859–1917) served in Egypt, from 1896 to 1917, as a public-health administrator, epidemiologist, and pathologist. He was professor of Bacteriology at the Cairo Medical School, President of the Sanitary, Maritime, and Quarantine Council, member of the Indian Plague Commission, and author or co-author of 40 papers in palaeopathology. However, little is known of his early professional life, which encompassed his education, medical training, and research in England and France. The pre-Egyptian period, 1878 to 1896, was a time of extraordinary activity. Acquiring four academic Degrees at Oxford University and clinical experience at the University College Hospital, London (1878–1889), he was the clinical assistant of Louis Pasteur during the anti-rabies campaign (autumn 1889), interim President of the British Institute of Preventive Medicine (1893–1896), and immunology researcher (1890–1895), in London and Paris, under the guidance of élie Metchnikoff (1845–1916). Ruffer developed the diphtheria antitoxin in Britain. In addition to a dissertation on hydrocephalus, he composed or co-authored 34 papers. A prolific writer, linguist, clinician, and administrator, he explored several medical sub-disciplines before concentrating on palaeopathology.
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