Four levels of complexity for clinical tissue engineering have been proposed, starting with epithelial replacement as the most straightforward at level one and the provision of complex solid organs, such as kidneys, at level four.1 Blood vessels are level two: hollow structures with few engineering demands and an intrinsic, luminal, blood supply. Such vessels should therefore be an excellent target for the next generation of tissue-engineered products. Conventional approaches to vascular replacement focus on the use of autologous tissue, particularly saphenous vein, and synthetic materials, such as polyethylene terephthalate (Dacron) and expanded polytetrafluoroethylene (ePTFE).
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