Classically stress is defined as a threatening of homeostasis to which the organism, in order to survive, responds with a large number ofadaptative responses implicating the activation of the sympathetic nervous system and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Acute stress response involves several brain regions (e.g. prefrontal cortex, amygdala, hippocampus, hypothalamus) where sex differences have been evidenced both in structure and function; limbic andforebrain regions are extremely sensitive to hormones released during stress, especially glucocorticoids. Chronic stress, on the other hand, causes adaptive plasticity in the brain, in which local neurotransmitters as well as systemic hormones interact to produce structural as well as functional changes. Stress-induced structural/functional changes in brain regions may contribute to the development of psychiatric disorders such as depression and post-traumatic stress disorder. It is suggested that gonadal hormone influences provide complex contributions to sex differences in vulnerabilities to stress-related diseases.
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