In Gram-positive bacteria, T-box riboswitches regulate expression of aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases (ARSs) and other proteins in response to fluctuating tRNA aminoacylation levels under various nutritional states. T-boxes reside in the 5’-untranslated regions (UTRs) of the mRNAs they regulate, and comprise two conserved domains. Stem I harbors the specifier trinucleotide that base-pairs with the anticodon of cognate tRNA. 3’ to Stem I is the antiterminator domain, which base-pairs with the tRNA acceptor end and evaluates its aminoacylation state. Despite high phylogenetic conservation and widespread occurrence in pathogens, the structural basis of tRNA recognition, by this riboswitch remains ill-defined. Here, we demonstrate that the ~100-nucleotide T-box Stem I is necessary and sufficient for specific, high-affinity (Kd ~150 nM) tRNA binding, and report its structure in complex with cognate tRNA at 3.2 Å resolution. Stem I recognizes the overall architecture of tRNA in addition to its anticodon, something accomplished by large ribonucleoproteins (RNPs) like the ribosome or proteins such as ARSs, but unprecedented for a compact mRNA domain. The C-shaped Stem I cradles the L-shaped tRNA forming an extended (1604 Å2) intermolecular interface. In addition to the specifier-anticodon interaction, two interdigitated T-loops near the apex of Stem I stack on the tRNA elbow in a manner analogous to those of the J11/12-J12/11 motif of RNase P and the L1 stalk of the ribosomal E-site. Since these RNPs and T-boxes are unrelated, this strategy to recognize an universal tRNA feature likely evolved convergently. Mutually induced fit of Stem I and the tRNA exploiting the intrinsic flexibility of tRNA and its conserved post-transcriptional modifications results in high shape complementarity, which in addition to providing specificity and affinity, globally organizes the T-box to orchestrate tRNA-dependent transcription regulation.
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